Back الکل (مخدر) FA Alkohol (droga) Serbian 乙醇 (藥物) Chinese

Alcohol (drug)

Ethanol
Skeletal formula of ethanol
Ball-and-stick model of ethanol Space-filling model of ethanol
Clinical data
Pronunciation/ˈɛθənɒl/
Other namesAbsolute alcohol; Alcohol (USPTooltip United States Pharmacopeia); Cologne spirit; Drinking alcohol; Ethanol (JANTooltip Japanese Accepted Name); Ethylic alcohol; EtOH; Ethyl alcohol; Ethyl hydrate; Ethyl hydroxide; Ethylol; Grain alcohol; Hydroxyethane; Methylcarbinol
Pregnancy
category
  • X (Contraindicated in pregnancy)
Dependence
liability
Physical: Very High Psychological: Moderate[1]
Addiction
liability
Moderate (10–15%)[2]
Routes of
administration
Common: Oral
Uncommon: suppository, inhalation, ocular, insufflation, injection[3]
Drug classAnalgesic; Depressants; Sedatives; Anxiolytics; Euphoriants; GABAA receptor positive modulators Neurotoxins;
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability80%+[4][5]
Protein bindingWeakly or not at all[4][5]
MetabolismLiver (90%):[6][8]
Alcohol dehydrogenase
MEOS (CYP2E1)
MetabolitesAcetaldehyde; Acetic acid; Acetyl-CoA; Carbon dioxide; Water; Ethyl glucuronide; Ethyl sulfate
Onset of actionPeak concentrations:[6][4]
• Range: 30–90 minutes
• Mean: 45–60 minutes
Fasting: 30 minutes
Elimination half-lifeConstant-rate elimination at typical concentrations:[7][8][6]
• Range: 10–34 mg/dL/hour
• Mean (men): 15 mg/dL/hour
• Mean (women): 18 mg/dL/hr
At very high concentrations (t1/2): 4.0–4.5 hours[5][4]
Duration of action6–16 hours (amount of time that levels are detectable)[9]
Excretion• Major: metabolism (into carbon dioxide and water)[4]
• Minor: urine, breath, sweat (5–10%)[6][4]
Identifiers
  • ethanol
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
PDB ligand
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC2H6O
Molar mass46.069 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Density0.7893 g/cm3 (at 20 °C)[10]
Melting point−114.14 ± 0.03 °C (−173.45 ± 0.05 °F) [10]
Boiling point78.24 ± 0.09 °C (172.83 ± 0.16 °F) [10]
Solubility in waterMiscible mg/mL (20 °C)
  • CCO
  • InChI=1S/C2H6O/c1-2-3/h3H,2H2,1H3
  • Key:LFQSCWFLJHTTHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug that is the active ingredient in fermented drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor).[11] Technically, alcoholic beverages contain several types of psychoactive alcohols. The most prevalent alcohol is the primary alcohol ethanol (commonly referered to as "alcohol"). Ethanol has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde.[12] Less prevalent alcohols found in alcoholic beverages, but that are less toxic than primary alcohols, are secondary, and tertiary alcohols. Tertiary alcohols are least toxic, since they cannot be oxidized into aldehyde or carboxylic acid metabolites. For example, 2M2B is 20 times more potent than ethanol. Some tertiary alcohols, like 2M2B have been synthesized and used recreationally. Alcoholic beverages are sometimes laced with toxic alcohols, such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol.[11] A mild, brief exposure to isopropyl alcohol (which is only moderately more toxic than ethanol) is unlikely to cause any serious harm, but many methanol poisoning incidents have occurred through history, since methanol is lethal even in small quantities, as little as 10–15 milliliters (2–3 teaspoons).

Alcohol is one of the oldest and most commonly consumed recreational drugs, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness").[13] Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. Short-term effects from moderate consumption include happiness and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, while binge drinking may result in generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, hangover-like symptoms, and generalized depression of central nervous system (CNS) function. Alcohol is addictive to humans, and can result in alcohol use disorder, dependence and withdrawal. It can have a variety of long-term adverse effects on health, such as liver and brain damage,[14][15][16] and its consumption can cause cancer.[17] The adverse effects of alcohol on health are most important when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. However, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption.[18][19] In high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death. In 2021, there were 2,627 deaths in the US due to alcohol poisoning.[20]

Alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA),[21] the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; by facilitating GABA's actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the CNS.[21] The substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin.[22][23] The pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain.[24][25]

  1. ^ WHO Expert Committee on Problems Related to Alcohol Consumption : second report. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2007. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-4-120944-1. Retrieved 3 March 2015. ...alcohol dependence (is) a substantial risk of regular heavy drinking...
  2. ^ Vengeliene V, Bilbao A, Molander A, Spanagel R (May 2008). "Neuropharmacology of alcohol addiction". British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (2): 299–315. doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.30. PMC 2442440. PMID 18311194. (Compulsive alcohol use) occurs only in a limited proportion of about 10–15% of alcohol users....
  3. ^ Gilman JM, Ramchandani VA, Crouss T, Hommer DW (January 2012). "Subjective and neural responses to intravenous alcohol in young adults with light and heavy drinking patterns". Neuropsychopharmacology. 37 (2): 467–77. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.206. PMC 3242308. PMID 21956438.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference AcademicPress2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference pmid3319346 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference pmid3279433 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Becker CE (September 1970). "The clinical pharmacology of alcohol". California Medicine. 113 (3): 37–45. PMC 1501558. PMID 5457514.
  8. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Levine2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Iber FL (26 November 1990). Alcohol and Drug Abuse as Encountered in Office Practice. CRC Press. pp. 74–. ISBN 978-0-8493-0166-7.
  10. ^ a b c Haynes WM, ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 3.246. ISBN 1-4398-5511-0.
  11. ^ a b Collins SE, Kirouac M (2013). "Alcohol Consumption". Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine. pp. 61–65. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_626. ISBN 978-1-4419-1004-2.
  12. ^ Burcham PC (19 November 2013). An Introduction to Toxicology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-1-4471-5553-9.
  13. ^ "10th Special Report to the U.S. Congress on Alcohol and Health: Highlights from Current Research" (PDF). National Institute of Health. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. June 2000. p. 134. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2014. The brain is a major target for the actions of alcohol, and heavy alcohol consumption has long been associated with brain damage. Studies clearly indicate that alcohol is neurotoxic, with direct effects on nerve cells. Chronic alcohol abusers are at additional risk for brain injury from related causes, such as poor nutrition, liver disease, and head trauma.
  14. ^ Bruha R, Dvorak K, Petrtyl J (March 2012). "Alcoholic liver disease". World Journal of Hepatology. 4 (3): 81–90. doi:10.4254/wjh.v4.i3.81. PMC 3321494. PMID 22489260.
  15. ^ Brust JC (April 2010). "Ethanol and cognition: indirect effects, neurotoxicity and neuroprotection: a review". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 7 (4): 1540–57. doi:10.3390/ijerph7041540. PMC 2872345. PMID 20617045.
  16. ^ Venkataraman A, Kalk N, Sewell G, Ritchie CW, Lingford-Hughes A (March 2017). "Alcohol and Alzheimer's Disease-Does Alcohol Dependence Contribute to Beta-Amyloid Deposition, Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's Disease?". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 52 (2): 151–158. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agw092. hdl:10044/1/42603. PMID 27915236.
  17. ^ de Menezes RF, Bergmann A, Thuler LC (2013). "Alcohol consumption and risk of cancer: a systematic literature review". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 14 (9): 4965–72. doi:10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.9.4965. PMID 24175760.
  18. ^ Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, et al. (February 2013). "Light alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta-analysis". Annals of Oncology. 24 (2): 301–8. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds337. PMID 22910838.
  19. ^ Yasinski E (12 January 2021). "Even If You Don't Drink Daily, Alcohol Can Mess With Your Brain". Discover (magazine).
  20. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Multiple Cause of Death, 2018-2021". National Vital Statistics System. National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  21. ^ a b Lobo IA, Harris RA (July 2008). "GABA(A) receptors and alcohol". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 90 (1): 90–4. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2008.03.006. PMC 2574824. PMID 18423561.
  22. ^ Cite error: The named reference pmid11391069 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  23. ^ Cite error: The named reference pmid24164436 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  24. ^ Charlet K, Beck A, Heinz A (2013). "The dopamine system in mediating alcohol effects in humans". Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. 13: 461–88. doi:10.1007/7854_2011_130. ISBN 978-3-642-28719-0. PMID 21533679.
  25. ^ Méndez M, Morales-Mulia M (June 2008). "Role of mu and delta opioid receptors in alcohol drinking behaviour". Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 1 (2): 239–52. doi:10.2174/1874473710801020239. PMID 19630722.